    '''Alchemy''' is an ancient tradition, the primary objective of which was the creation of the mythical &quot;philosopher's stone,&quot; which was said to be capable of turning base metals into gold or silver, and also act as an elixir of life that would confer youth and immortality upon its user. As practiced historically, alchemy can be viewed as a protoscience, a precursor to modern chemistry, having provided procedures, equipment, and terminology that are still in use. However, alchemy also included various non-scientific mythological, religious, and spiritual concepts, theories and practices. ==Etymology==  The word alchemy derives from the Old French ''alquimie'', which is from the Medieval Latin ''alchimia'', and which is in turn from the Arabic ''al-kimia'' (الكيمياء).  This term itself is derived from the Ancient Greek ''chemeia'' (χημεία) or ''chemia'' (χημία) [ alchemy], Oxford Dictionaries with the addition of the Arabic definite article ''al-'' (الـ‎). Or see . The ancient Greek word may have been derived fromSee, for example, the etymology for χημεία in  a version of the Egyptian name for Egypt, which was itself based on the Ancient Egyptian word ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic Khmi, ''black earth'', as opposed to desert sand).  The word could also have originally derived from ''chumeia'' (χυμεία) meaning &quot;mixture&quot; and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry.See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in  With the later rise of alchemy in Alexandria, the word may have derived from Χημία, and thus became spelled as χημεία, and the original meaning forgotten.The original source for this analysis is the article on pp.&amp;nbsp;81&amp;ndash;85 of  The etymology is still open, and recent research indicates that the Egyptian derivation may be valid.The article by David Bain, entitled &quot;Μελανίτις γή, an unnoticed Greek name for Egypt: New evidence for the origins and etymology of alchemy?&quot; expresses the current debate.   ==History==  Page from alchemic treatise of [[Ramon Llull, 16th century]]   Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and &quot;genetic&quot; relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centred around the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from ancient Egypt, to the Greco-Roman world, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.  The best-known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals into gold (called chrysopoeia) or silver (less well known is plant alchemy, or &quot;spagyric&quot;); the creation of a &quot;panacea&quot;, or the elixir of life, a remedy that, it was supposed, would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely; and the discovery of a universal solvent.[ Alchemy at Dictionary.com]. Although these were not the only uses for the discipline, they were the ones most documented and well-known.  Starting with the Middle Ages, Persian and European alchemists invested much effort in the search for the philosopher's stone, a legendary substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals.  Alchemy became known as the ''spagyric art'' after Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'' in the 16th century, the word probably being coined by Paracelsus. Compare this with one of the dictums of Alchemy in Latin: Solve et Coagula&amp;nbsp;— ''Separate, and Join Together'' (or ''&quot;dissolve and coagulate&quot;'').  Pope John XXII issued a bull against alchemical counterfeiting, and the Cistercians banned the practice amongst their members. In the late 14th century, Piers the Ploughman and Chaucer both painted unflattering pictures of Alchemists as thieves and liars; and in 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of Alchemy without first receiving a licence to practise it from the King. However, by the 16th C, Elizabeth I employed the polymath John Dee, regarded by many as an alchemist, as her astrologer and occasional advisor. By contrast, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, sponsored various alchemists in their work at his court in Prague, one of which was a particular alchemist named Edward Kelley. Kelley had been a protegee of John Dee in England.  Up to the 17th century, alchemy was practiced by scientists, such as Isaac Newton &amp;ndash; who devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other alchemists of the Western world who were eminent in their other studies include Roger Bacon, and Tycho Brahe.  ===Alchemy as a subject of historical research=== The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.viii-xvi   As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements.[ See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website] Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents.  ==Relation to the science of chemistry==  Practical applications of alchemy produced a wide range of contributions to medicine and the physical sciences.  Alchemists Jābir ibn Hayyān N.C. Datta. ''The Story of Chemistry.'' p.23  and Robert BoyleArthur Greenburg. ''From alchemy to chemistry in picture and story.'' are both credited as being the fathers of chemistry.  Paracelsian iatrochemistry emphasized the medicinal application of alchemy.H. Stanley Redgrove. ''Alchemy Ancient and Modern''  p.60 Studies of alchemy also influenced Isaac Newton's theory of gravity.Mitch Stokes. ''Isaac Newton'' p.57   During the 17th century, practical alchemy started to evolve into modern chemistry,William R Newman &amp; Lawrence M Principe (1998) &quot;The Etymological Origins of an Historiographic Mistake&quot; in ''Early Science and Medicine'', Vol. 3, No. 1 pp.32-65 as it was renamed by Robert Boyle, the &quot;father of modern chemistry&quot;. In his book, ''The Skeptical Chymist'', Boyle attacked Paracelsus and the natural philosophy of Aristotle, which was taught at universities.  However, Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the Scholastic sciences and to Alchemy, in theory, practice and doctrine. The decline of alchemy continued in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework within a new view of the universe based on rational materialism.  ==Relation to Hermeticism== In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, the heart of alchemy is spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.96  This approach is often termed 'spiritual', 'esoteric', or 'internal' alchemy.  Early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. 300 A.D.), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry.'' The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34. This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy, which being at odds with the Medieval Christian Church was a necessity that could have otherwise led them to the &quot;stake and rack&quot; of the Inquisition under charges of heresy. On the other hand, Martin Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.4 Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.  In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that his usage of the metals was a symbol:    Numerous sources stress an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy.  Holmyard, when writing on exoteric aspects, states that they can not be properly appreciated if the esoteric is not always kept in mind.E. J. Holmyard.  ''Alchemy''. p.16 The prototype for this model can be found in Bolos of Mendes' second century BCE work, ''Physika kai Mystika (On Physical and Mystical Matters)''. Marie-Louise von Franz tells us the double approach of Western alchemy was set from the start, when Greek philosophy was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology. The technological, operative approach, which she calls extraverted, and the mystic, contemplative, psychological one, which she calls introverted are not mutually exclusive, but complementary instead, as meditation requires practice in the real world, and conversely.von Franz, M-L. Alchemical Active Imagination. Shambala. Boston. 1997. ISBN 0-87773-589-1. During the renaissance, alchemy broke into more distinct schools placing spiritual alchemists in high contrast with those working with literal metals and chemicals.Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.3 While most spiritual alchemists also incorporate elements of exotericism, examples of  a purely spiritual alchemy can be traced back as far as the sixteenth century, when Jacob Boehme used alchemical terminology in strictly mystical writings.Daniel Merkur. ''Gnosis: an esoteric tradition of mystical visions and unions.'' State University of New York Press. p.75  Another example can be found in the work of Heinrich Khunrath (1560-1605) who viewed the process of transmutation as occurring within the alchemist's soul.Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.3  Principe and Newman claim that the modern spiritual interpretation of alchemy arose in the 19th century from the Victorian occult revival, and therefore the exclusively spiritual interpretation postdates the early modern period.''Alchemy Tried in the Fire'' by William R. Newman, Lawrence M Principe, '''p37''' There is evidence to support that some classical alchemical sources were adulterated during this time to give greater weight to the spiritual interpretation of alchemy.''Newton and Newtonianism'' by James E. Force, Sarah Hutton, '''p211'''''Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe'' by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, '''p395-6''' Academic historical research supports that the alchemists were searching for a material substance using physical methods.''Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe'' by William R. Newman, Anthony Grafton, MIT Press, 2006, '''p397-8,400'''  === Magnum opus ===  The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. *''nigredo'', a blackening or melanosis *''albedo'', a whitening or leucosis *''citrinitas'', a yellowing or xanthosis *''rubedo'', a reddening, purpling , or iosis Joseph Needham. ''Science &amp; Civilisation in China.'' Cambridge. 1984. p.23  === Psychology === Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used by psychologists and philosophers. Carl Jung reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and presented the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path.Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge.Jung, C. G., &amp; Hinkle, B. M. (1912). Psychology of the Unconscious : a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, a contribution to the history of the evolution of thought. London: Kegan Paul Trench Trubner. (revised in 1952 as Symbols of Transformation, Collected Works Vol.5 ISBN 0-691-01815-4).  Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of individuation. In his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which Gnosticism survived its various purges into the Renaissance,Jung, C. G., &amp; Jaffe A. (1962). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. London: Collins. This is Jung's autobiography, recorded and edited by Aniela Jaffe, ISBN 0-679-72395-1. a concept also followed by others such as Stephan A. Hoeller. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to a Yoga of the East, and more adequate to the Western mind than Eastern religions and philosophies. The practice of Alchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the Alchemist. Conversely, spontaneous changes on the mind of Western people undergoing any important stage in individuation seems to produce, on occasion, imagery known to Alchemy and relevant to the person's situation.Jung, C. G. - Psychology and Alchemy; Symbols of Transformation.  His interpretation of Chinese alchemical texts in terms of his analytical psychology also served the function of comparing Eastern and Western alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources (archetypes).C.-G. Jung Preface to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching.C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of The Secret of The Golden Flower.  Marie-Louise von Franz, a disciple of Jung, continued Jung's studies on alchemy and its psychological meaning.  